The petrous bone is one part of the temporal bone, a major part of the skull that helps form the sides and base of the skull. Usually the petrous bone is completely solid but sometimes it can be “pneumatized” (have air spaces).

The common iliac arteries branch off from the end of the abdominal aorta (the main blood vessel that exits the heart, bringing oxygen-rich blood to the rest of the body). The common iliac arteries provide the primary blood supply to the lower limbs. Atherosclerosis is when plaque (cholesterol containing fatty deposits) builds up and hardens the blood vessels, and if it progresses, can block blood flow causing heart attack or stroke. Risk factors for atherosclerosis include high blood pressure, poor cholesterol, diabetes, and smoking.

The appendix is a small tube of tissue attached to your large intestine. An appendiceal mucocele describes when there is a mucus collection inside the appendix. This is an uncommon finding, with an incidence of less than 1%. Appendiceal mucoceles can be asymptomatic (does not cause symptoms), but could cause right lower abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting and weight loss. In rare instances, the mucocele can have malignant (cancerous) features.

Retroperitoneal refers to the anatomical space located behind the abdominal or peritoneal cavity and holds the organs that contribute to several systems in the body, including the urinary, adrenal, circulatory, gastrointestinal, and endocrine systems. Cysts (pockets of fluid) are benign (non-cancerous) findings that usually cause no signs or symptoms and need no treatment. However, they may become large enough to cause pain or discomfort in the abdomen or pelvic area.

There are two adrenal glands in the body, one on top of each kidney. The adrenal glands make hormones that regulate the body’s metabolism, response to stress, and water/salt balance. Adrenal cysts are sac-like pockets of membranous tissue that contain fluid. Most adrenal cysts are benign (non-cancerous), asymptomatic (do not cause symptoms) and do not require intervention. Possible symptoms, if any, can include abdominal discomfort or pain due to physical enlargement of the cyst and endocrine abnormalities (excessive production of hormones).

Accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity is called ascites. There are numerous causes of ascites, but the most common cause in the U.S. is cirrhosis of the liver (which accounts for approximately 80% of cases). Cirrhosis is a condition in which scar tissue replaces healthy liver tissue and prevents the liver from working normally. Other common causes of ascites are cancer-related or due to heart failure.

The Bartholin's glands are located on each side of the vaginal opening. These glands secrete fluid that helps lubricate the vagina. Sometimes the openings of these glands become obstructed, causing fluid to back up into the gland. The result is a relatively painless swelling called a Bartholin's cyst. If the fluid within the cyst becomes infected, a collection of pus may form surrounded by inflamed tissue (abscess).

Accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity is called ascites. There are numerous causes of ascites, but the most common cause in the U.S. is cirrhosis of the liver (which accounts for approximately 80% of cases). Cirrhosis is a condition in which scar tissue replaces healthy liver tissue and prevents the liver from working normally. Other common causes of ascites are cancer-related or due to heart failure.

Arthritis is the swelling and tenderness of one or more of your joints. Common symptoms include pain, stiffness and decreased range of motion. Symptoms may vary in severity and can fluctuate or progress/get worse over time. Treatments vary depending on the type of arthritis, but the main goal of treatment is to reduce symptoms and preserve joint function, mobility and quality of life.

The seminal vesicles are two small glands that store and produce the majority of the fluid that makes up semen. Seminal vesicle atrophy is characterized by a reduction in the size and number of glandular components and lining epithelial cells of the seminal vesicle. Seminal vesicle atrophy may be congenital (from birth) or it can occur as an age-related change when the depletion of androgenic hormone has a profound atrophic effect on accessory sex organs. Treatment with anti-androgenic substances can also lead to the atrophy of the seminal vesicle.